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Fusarium New! Fusarium mycotoxins: chemical names list.
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CHRONOLOGY OF MYCOHERBICIDE
DEVELOPMENT AGAINST DRUG PLANTS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE GENUS
FUSARIUM -AN ONGOING WORK! |
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1500's Aztec descriptions of corn ear rot by a Spanish Franciscan Friar in Mexico may be the earliest reference to Fusaria. 1809 Link, a botanist, is the first to describe the genus Fusarium. 1840-41 C.F.P. von Martius' investigation (1842) of the rotting in stored potatoes identified a Fusarium as the causal organism. 1846 P. Harting publishes more on Fusarium potato tuber rot. 1856 H. Schacht, J. Reinke and G. Berthhold (Zersetzung der Kartoffel) publish on Fusaria rots. 1890's Horses, cows, and pigs were reported as losing hair and hooves after eating Fusarium-infected grain in Nebraska. Originally thought to be ergotism by A.T. Peters (1904), J.L. Sheldon (1904) confirmed it to be Fusarium. 1892 Atkinson describes "Frenching" of cotton in Alabama, which is attributed to Fusaria. 1896 1904 1904 1916 "The origin of tumours" published. Dr. N.V. Greco attributes a fungal infection of the nose to a Fusaria. 1944-1949 - Fusarium sporotrichiodes infestation of overwintered grain causes the death of hundreds of thousands of people in the USSR. This focuses research on the mycotoxicology of Fusarium species. It is later determined that the trichothecene mycotoxins, so-named because they were first isolated from the morphologically-similar genus Trichothecium were mainly responsible. 1950's - Soviet Study of the overwintered grain phenomenon is published: Soil Microorganisms and Higher Plants N. A. Krasil'nikov, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of Microbiology Published by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow 1958, published for THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION, WASHINGTON, D.C. and the USDA, USA by THE ISRAEL PROGRAM FOR SCIENTIFIC TRANSLATIONS.1961.] 1959 - APrincipales Enfermedades de las Plantas en Perú. Fitopatogía de las Estaciones Experimentales Agricolas de las Asociaciones de Agriculturas de Cañete e I.C.A. y del Comité de Defensa Técnica del Algodonero de la Sociedad National Agraria, Cañete, Perú. De Segura, C.B. OBTAIN Trichothecene isolated from Fusaria as bio/chemical warfare agents. US government-contracted scientists first repeated the Soviet work (Army Biological Labs-Tupenevich); did detection, analysis, and decontamination work (Army Armament Research and Development Command); applied trichothecenes to various mammals' skins (Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases); researched protection against them in biological or chemical warfare (National Research Council); measured trichothecene induced "deep necrotic ulcers" on rat skin (Materials Research Lab - Australia); determined the LC50's (the Lethal Concentration in the atmosphere at which 50% of the tested animals die) of trichothecenes in aerosols in mice (Ft. Detrick); noted trichothecene liver toxicity (Ft. Detrick); determined how to apply it in drinking water (Lawrence Livermore National Lab); determined general animal toxicity (USAMRDC); trichothecene antibody protection (Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research); trichothecenes applied as aerosols (Ft. Detrick); dosed monkeys (Ft. Detrick); determined trichothecene antibodies (Vestar Research); and, an enzyme immunoassay for trichothecenes (Biometric systems). I am detailing this, because I want to show beyond any reasonable doubt that Fusarium and its mycotoxins have been long known for their toxicity and there is a known relationship between Fusarium and biological or chemical warfare - the latter using compounds extracted from it. 1964 to early 1980's - A coca wilt epidemic breaks out in the Erythroxylum research plantation on the island of Kauai, Hawaii (originally run by Coca-Cola, then turned over to USG-ARS in 1987). During this time, dead plants were removed from the field and immediately replaced with healthy seeds or seedlings....Fusarium oxysporum was identified as the wilt organism during the 1980's, and its dispersal throughout the research plots eventually resulted in the termination of the breeding project. Source of Fusarium unclear. We theorize that it was present in the Hawaii environment. ACharacterization of a Vascular Wilt of Erythroxylum coca Caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. erythroxyli Forma Specialis Nova.@ D.C. Sands, et alia , Dept of Plant Pathology, Montana State University, Bozeman 59717; and L.C. Darlington, Biocontrol of Plant Diseases Laboratory, USDA, ARS, Beltsville, MD, 20705 THRU ARS FOIA (SS) Nov 22, 1999 1972 - The ARS has been conducting research on mycoherbicides since 1972. 1975 - Tim Plowman sends Bígwood some of the same seedlings that were to be sent to Hawaii for planting to determine if the seedlings have the coca wilt disease when grown in the San Francisco Bay Area. Bígwood cultivates these and all grow to maturity in San Francisco Bay Area, USA. Based upon the fact that all of the seedlings that were sent to Hawaii died, Plowman hypothesizes that the fungus in Hawaii is indigenous to Hawaii, and it not brought in by the seedlings. Kauai, Hawaii: three separate field nurseries were set up. As plants died, they were replaced with healthy seedlings (see above). Disease symptoms included leaf defoliation, wilting of young leaves, drying of twigs, and finally death of the plant. Upon dissection of the branches, brown discoloration of the vascular bundles and the cambium layer was observed. It was common to see one half of a tree healthy and the other half wilting and dying. Later, the whole tree died. mid 1970s ( 1975?) -A.H. McCain and D.C. Hildebrand work with Fusarium oxysporum as a mycoherbicide on Cannabis. University of California, Berkeley, USA. Published in 1978, 1975 - Lentz, P.L., B.R. Lipscomb, and D.F. Farr Fungi and diseases of Erythroxylum. Phytologia 30 (5): 350-368 OBTAIN 1975 - Komada, H. Development of a selective medium for quantitative isolation of Fusarium oxysporum from natural soil. Rev. Plant Prot. Res 8:114-125 OBTAIN 1983 - CIA ISOLATES Fusarium oxysporum FROM Coca AND STARTS TO WORK WITH IT. Off the record interviews (two). One places the CIA in Peru with Fusarium and Coca; the other places the CIA in Hawaii with Fusarium and Coca. Also see on the record in Golden, NYT. 1983 - Fusarium species: An Illustrated Manual for Identification. Nelson, P.E., Toussoun, T.A., and Marasas, W.F.O., Penn State U Press, University Park, PA OBTAIN 1984 - Start of
Fusarium epidemic in Peru (David Sands) 1985 - CIA TOLD TO GET OUT OF SOME PERUVIAN COCA PROJECT (was this the Moth project or a Fusarium project?). Neither X nor Y KNOW IF THEY DID. Off the record interviews (two sources). 1986 - ARS began to develop biological agents to kill coca, including moth and fungus. [In a conversation with Sharon Stevenson, Don Hamilton, Public Affairs Officer, US Embassy Lima, citing his conversation Bob Norton, ARS spokesman 1991 in response to Stevenson's questions] 1986 - $1,365,000; 1987 - $1,461,000; 1988 - $1,456,000; 1989 - $1,452,000; 990 - $1,487,000; 1991- $6,484,000 ($5m for coca alone); 1992 - $6,484,000 (according to Hamilton, of this amount $5m was earmarked for coca). (Moth idea disappeared quickly according to a State Department officer because females would not reproduce fast enough. OR BECAUSE THEY WERE TOLD TO STOP (A.M.).) SHARON 1987 - Early Peruvian press reports that something was attacking the coca in UHV; UNAS (Univ. Agraria de la Selva-Tingo Maria) paid little attention, according to Enrique Arévalo, later investigator for ARS at UNAS. SHARON 1987 - ARS takes over Kauai, Hawaii site 1988 - Sands isolates EN-4 from E. novogranatense growing in Hawaii. [Rosenquist interview 06/14/00] This was isolated from one of the same strains that Dr. Plowman had sent to Bígwood. 1988 - South African researchers describe another series of Fusarium mycotoxins that they call Fumonisin. The mold that produces it clings to corn crops grown under stress. After a severe drought, about half the U.S. corn crops are considered poor or very poor quality 1989 The USDA, or at the very least, Dr. David Sands knew about the problem of Fusarium in immunocompromised subjects. In a letter to DEA on March 10, 1989, he states: "this fungus is only a problem in immunocompromised patients."1989 Peruvian campesinos began complaining about helicopters spraying, which complaints continue to present. SHARON 1989 - Mar.-Oct. Large base at Santa Lucia was built, opened officially in Oct., allowing entry of large resupply aircraft. Operations had been previously based in the town of Tingo María, in the southern part of the UHV. 1989-90 - Texas, USA farmers and ranchers report numerous outbreaks of illness among pigs and horses. Tests find fumonisin concentrations in corn-based horse feed as high as 126 parts per million. Late 1980's - early 1990's (work completed by 1992). DoE/Battelle -Richland, WA undertake classified research on Fusarium as a mycoherbicide on Erythroxylum. The funding was from other agencies. mid-1990 - Peruvian investigator (later? under ARS contract) Enrique Arévalo finishes 6-month investigation of the fungus for the Upper Huallaga Agrarian Cooperative in Uchiza. Identifies it as Fusarium oxysporum and says it has attacked up to 70% of the coca plots in some areas. Cites rain, wind, people and seed transport as spreading the disease. 1990 - Cocaine production, Eradication, and the Environment: Policy, Impact, and Options. Proceedings of a seminar held by the Congressional Research Service. Cong. Research Serv. LoC August 1990 READ & QUOTE 1990 - AIN THE LAST WEEK REPORTS HAVE BEEN CIRCULATING OF A GREEN FUNGUS ATTACKING PLANTS (COCA INCLUDED) IN THE UHV. WE HAVE BEEN TOLD THAT THE U.S. IS BEEN FINGERED AS THE CULPRIT IN SOME CIRCLES. MORE ON THIS LATER.@ 1990LIMA18575 DOS/JB 1990 - British bugs for coca - INSECT CONTROL MECHANISMS FOR COCA. "SEPT 90 STATE 299451SUBJECT: DND ROLE IN HERBICIDE EVALUATION REF: (A) USVIENNA 1878 (B) STATE 201798 (C) LIMA 8039 1. SUMMARY: THE DEPARTMENT IS PREPARED TO SUPPORT DND INVOLVEMENT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A RESEARCH PROTOCOL AND A SUBSEQUENT EVALUATION OF ANCILLARY ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE APPLICATION OF TEBUTHIURON FOR COCA ERADICATION IN PERU. IN A RELATED DEVELOPMENT, DEPARTMENT AND USDA PRINCIPALS BRIEFED A TECHNICAL TEAM OF THE UK CABINET SECRETARIAT AND THE HOME OFFICE IN JUNE 26-27 REGARDING POSSIBLE INSECT CONTROL AGENTS FOR COCA. THE BRITISH ARE CONSIDERING SUPPORTING RESEARCH WITH A VIEW TO DEVELOPING INSECT CONTROL MECHANISMS FOR COCA. END SUMMARY. STATE 299451" 1990 - In Cameron County, Texas, rates of neural tube birth defects begin to rise, primarily driven by an increase in anencephaly, which halts brain development. This increase is not noted until a year later. Now it is blamed on the effects of a Fusarium epidemic in corn. 1991 - Stevenson writes in her June 2, 1991 article to the Miami Herald, but which was cut for space in the published version: When confronted with the logical sequence of facts and circumstance which might point to US culpability for the soil fungus, an official with ample knowledge of the anti-drug program in Peru said, "the only logic you need is that the US really wants to stop coca." 1991 (November) - "Potential for Biological Control of Coca@ prepared for US Congress' Office of Technology Assessment, Agricultural Alternatives to Coca Production by Dr. David Rosen, Prof of Entomology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel. Argues: "Finally, efforts should be made to persuade local populations to abandon coca-chewing as a way of life.@ 1991 (November) - Chiang Mai, Thailand: FOIA response: BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF ILLICIT CROPS details a project presumably to control poppy going on at Chiang Mai University in Thailand. This project was supposedly funded by the University and was seeking other funds from the US. It is precisely this type of project that the CIA, with its hidden budget, would have been able to fund. So far, we do not know the identity of the biocontrol agent. 1992 (November) - After a coup attempt against him by army officers, Peru's President Alberto Fujimori gives a radio interview in which he says that herbicide Spike had been sprayed experimentally, and that "there is a type of fungi (sic-translator) as well, which is killing all of the plantations, and no-one seems to know if it is synthetic, natural, or manufactured in laboratories. However, coca still has not disappeared with this action; production continues to increase and there are ever more shipments heading north; there are no substitution crops; and any military action we take will only serve to push the coca growers closer to the guerrillas...It is true that there is a fungi (sic-translator) destroying not only the coca crops, but food crops also, and we are performing a technical investigation of this. We do not know its precise origin." 1993 - AProgress Report on development of a bioassay for determination of the effectiveness of Fusarium oxysporum as a biocontrol agent on Erythroxylum coca.@ Bailey, B.A., L.C. Darlington, and J.D. Anderson. NO DATE OBTAIN 1993 -In a debriefing of the US-funded Peruvian National Coordinator for Human Rights (Coordinadora) about their 1993 Annual Trip to Peru's Huallaga Valley Jungle Region, ATHE DELEGATION WAS STRUCK, HOWEVER, BY THE DEVASTATION CAUSED BY THE FUNGUS PLAGUE THAT IS WITHERING COCA CROPS. THEY WERE ASSAILED AT ALMOST EVERY STOP WITH ACCOUNTS OF U.S. DEA AIRPLANES SPREADING <FUNGUS PODS` OVER THE COCA FIELDS...@ 93LIMA08060 DOS/ JB. 1993 - June- US Embassy in Lima cables State Dept (DoS) in Washington, D.C. about the "PERUVIAN MEDIA DISCUSSION OF USG COCA FUNGUS RESEARCH": The cable in Lima is clearly from people who are not in the know asking for clarification: 1. THE JUNE 9 ISSUE OF THE LIMA NEWSPAPER "LA REPUBLICA" CONTAINS AN ARTICLE BY INVESTIGATIVE REPORTER FRANCISCO REYES WHICH ATTRIBUTES DISPLACEMENT OF COCA CULTIVATION INTO THE LOWER HUALLAGA VALLEY IN LARGE PART TO INFESTATION IN THE UPPER HUALLAGA BY THE FUNGUS "FUSARIUM OXYSPORUM". A PORTION OF THE ARTICLE READS AS FOLLOWS: "IN MARCH 1991, THE INVESTIGATIVE UNIT OF "LA REPUBLICA" CALLED ATTENTION FOR THE FIRST TIME TO THE MASSIVE WILTING PRESENT IN COCA IN PARAISO AND LA MORADA, AND IN A LATER REPORT STATED THE MAGNITUDE OF THE DAMAGE: 80 PERCENT OF THE PLANTATIONS IN UCHIZA HAD BEEN AFFECTED. ON THAT OCCASION, COCA FARMERS CHARGED THAT DEA HELICOPTERS HAD DISTRIBUTED PELLETS WHICH SUPPOSEDLY CONTAINED THE FUNGUS, ALTHOUGH THE UNITED STATES EMBASSY DENIED THAT ITS GOVERNMENT WAS ENGAGING IN USE OF BIOLOGICAL AGENTS TO DESTROY COCA. NEVERTHELESS, IN JUNE 1991,REPORTS OF THE BUSH ADMINISTRATION PRAISED ADVANCES IN BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS IN THE WAR AGAINST DRUGS. THOSE OFFICIAL REPORTS INCLUDED THE BUDGETS DESTINED FOR STUDY, RESEARCH AND APPLICATION OF THESE MICRO-ORGANISMS UNDERTAKEN BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OP THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT, WHICH HAVE NOW BEEN CONFIRMED BY AN OFFICIAL CONCERNED WITH THE SUBJECT. ING. LUIS GOMERO, DIRECTOR OF THE NETWORK FOR ACTION IN ALTERNATIVES TO USE OF AGRO-CHEMICALS ("LA RED DE ACCION EN ALTERNATIVAS AL USO DE AGRO-QUIMICOS, RRAA") STATED THAT AGENTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN GOVERNMENT WERE DISTRIBUTING ("ARROJANDO") ‘FUSARIUM OXYSPORUM IN THE UPPER HUALLAGA WITH ‘RELATIVE SUCCESS. ‘"... 3. ALTHOUGH WE HAVE HEARD REFERENCE IN THE PAST TO 1991 BUSH ADMINISTRATION DOCUMENTS WHICH THE REPORTER STATES CONFIRM THE EXISTANCE AND PROVIDE A BUDGET FOR USDA STUDY, RESEARCH AND EMPLOYMENT OF BIOLOGICAL AGENTS IN DRUG CONTROL PROGRAMS, EMBASSY DOES NOT AT THIS TIME HAVE ANY FURTHER INFORMATION IN THAT REGARD. WAS WOULD APPRECIATE IT IF INM COULD PROVIDE ANY FURTHER AVAILABLE INFORMATION CONCERNING THIS REFERENCE, AND ADVISE IF DEPT OR USDA IS FAMILIAR WITH ING. LUIS GOMERO OR THE ORGANIZATION HE SUPPOSEDLY DIRECTS. 1994- February - US Embassy, Lima cables Washington, DC with an analysis of Fusarium epidemic, citing several important factors apparent to the writer at the time: R 182205Z FEB 94 11. THEN, THERE IS THE FUNGUS. COCA GROWERS, ESPECIALLY THOSE ABANDONING THE UHV TO MOVE TO OTHER AREAS, GENERALLY ATTRIBUTE THE INDUSTRY S COLLAPSE IN THE UHV TO THE FUNGUS "FUSARIUM OXYSPORUM" (OR SOME VARIETY SIMILAR TO IT). MANY CHARGE BITTERLY THAT THE FUNGUS IS A BIOLOGICAL WEAPON DEVELOPED AND DISSEMINATED BY "DEA" (SOME ACTUALLY ASSERT THEY WERE EYEWITNESSES TO DISPERSAL OF FUNGAL AGENTS FROM "DEA" HELICOPTERS IN THE UHV). THIS SOIL-BORNE FUNGUS COEXISTS WITH COCA IN THE UHV. IT IS ALSO ASSOCIATED WITH COCA IN OTHER AREAS WHERE COCA IS ENCOUNTERED. THERE IS AT THIS TIME LITTLE BASIS FOR A SCIENTIFICALLY VALID CONCLUSION AS TO WHETHER THE FUNGUS HAS, BY SOME MECHANISM YET UNEXPLAINED, BECOME MUCH MORE VIRULENT IN THIS LOCALIZED AREA; IS ONE MORE FACTOR ON THE LIST ABOVE THAT ARE FOUND IN COMBINATION IN THE UHV AND NOWHERE ELSE; OR WHETHER FUNGAL INFECTION AND PLANT WILT IS A RESULT, RATHER THAN A CAUSE, OF PRICE DECLINE, BAD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES AND SOIL DEPLETION, AGING AVERAGE PLANT POPULATION (DUE, IN PART, TO SYSTEMATIC ERADICATION OF SEEDBEDS THAT MIGHT HAVE ALLOWED PLANT RENEWAL), AND CONSEQUENT ABANDONMENT OF CROPS BY GROWERS. 12. WE WILL NOT RECITE ARGUMENTS (OR INTERESTED GROUPS THAT CAN MAKE THEM) AS TO WHAT FACTOR OR FACTORS HAVE PRIMARY CREDIT FOR COLLAPSE OF THE UVH COCA AGROINDUSTRY. WE BELIEVE NO SINGLE FACTOR (NOT EVEN, UNFORTUNATELY, THE FUNGUS-IF THIS WERE ONLY TRUE, WE COULD RELAX AND LET NATURE SOLVE OUR COCAINE PROBLEM, BUT WE FEAR THAT REALITY IS NOT THAT SIMPLE) CAN BE RELIABLY INTERPRETED AS EXCLUSIVELY OR PRIMARILY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SITUATION DOCUMENTED BY THE 1993 COCA SURVEY. 199? - AA Bioassay for determination of pathogenicity of Fusarium oxysporum isolates on Erythroxylum coca@ Bailey, B.A., L.C. Darlington, and J.D. Anderson. "Triple Whammy Method" EN-4 did not kill Tomatoes UDSA FOIA DATE? To Sharon's FRIEND CORINNE 1994 - US military source claims, "Well, the fungus is a success!" defending US military actions against coca. SHARON STEVENSON 1996 - February 1996: A "Peru Monthly Narcotics Report" obtained through the Freedom of Information Act stated under the heading "Plant Disease Attacks Coca" states: "Meanwhile, reportedly 3000 farmers in the Tingo Maria and Leonicio Prado areA, BECAUSE OF THE LACK OF A MARKET(...), have had to scratch for other means of earning a living, including panning for gold, when a plant disease, >seca-seca= which had previously attacked coca plants broke out again in alternate crops planted in former coca beds." [State Department-JB FOIA response #199804417] OBTAIN 1997, June "The field agronomists reported that farmers were reluctant to use chemicals for fear of spreading fungus, which they believed had been put into the fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides by Peruvian or U.S. authorities" Operation breakthrough: Coca Cultivation & Cocaine Base Production in Peru Drug Intelligence Report, DEA Intelligence Division, June 1997. p 23 1997 Dec. - In a visit to Tingo María, Stevenson taped conversations with two elderly highland ladies, lamenting that the helicopters had sprayed and killed their coca. One small boy recalled a vivid story about seeing men who jumped from helicopters to apply something to his family's plot, which died. They also threatened him. SHARON 1998 - THE DRUG WAR'S FUNGAL SOLUTION? Jim Hogshire, Covert Action Quarterly, Spring 1998 The ground-breaking Hogshire article from CAQ (edited by Terry Allen and Sanho Tree). This article was considered such a threat to the established order that ONDCP was able to give David Sands a pre-publication copy. How they got their paws on it has yet to be explained. While Jim Hogshire may have mistaken the Genetic Engineering aspect of this project (he may not have --too -- all of the evidence is not in yet), and he did accept USDA assertions that the Peruvian epidemic was "natural" (the evidence is mixed, our evidence shows that the CIA was paying for work with Fusarium and Coca as early as 1983 in both Peru and Hawaii), all of which is understandable as CAQ never paid enough to do research), and most of the scientists in this field, within the US or foreign -rely on USDA funding. 1998 - Passage of Senate bill S.2522: Western Hemisphere Drug Elimination Act authorizing $23 million for three-year "Master Plan for Mycoherbicides to Control Narcotic Crops." 1999 - 2000 - May 3, Mother Jones publishes
2000 - May 16, The Guardian republishes
2000 - May 26, Kofi Annan refers to
2000 - July 21, Paulina Garcia D. de Larrea, the Ambassador/Subsecretary of International Organisms (Ecuador) writes Rodolfo Rendón, Ecuador's Environmental Minister regarding: FUMIGACION DE PLANTACIONES DE COCA EN COLOMBIA and expresses her concerns about possible mycoherbicide experiments by the US in Ecuadoran territory. 2000 - August 22 - Plan Colombia has passed, but Clinton waives the use of mycoherbicides in Colombia. 2000 - late August Información frente al eventual uso de agentes biológicos para la eradicación de cultivos ilìcitos. Preparado por el Dr. Heinz Moeller, Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores. Ecuador. Elaborado por: Ing. Melania Yánez Quezada. M.Sc. Ministerio del Ambiente, Ecuador. Versión RTF 2000 - September 5 and 6: The Andean community's (Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela) Environmental section, CAAAM, rejects the use of Fusarium in the Andes. 2000 - September DoS officer in Caracas asks about Mother Jones article and CAAAM meeting. 2000 - The U.S. Food and Drug Administration issues draft guidelines for maximum levels of fumonisin allowed in food. In a letter to federal officials, the Texas Department of Health worries that the level may be too high for people who consume corn as a dietary staple, especially Hispanic populations. 2001 April 16 - Newsweek’s Mike Isikof: “Not appearing in the public budget: millions of dollars in “black” U.S. intelligence assistance, including funding for covert programs to neutralize right-wing paramilitary forces with links to drug traffickers. Also planned: money for a highly sensitive “mycoherbicide” test program in Colombia that involves unleashing a plant-killing fungus on the nation’s coca crop.” No mention of Afghanistan and/or Pleospora. 2001 - USDA/ARS examines issues of toxicity of fumonisins in corn and other issues: "introducing novel concepts of how fungal metabolites of which there may be thousands not yet discovered, interact with plants, animals and microorganisms." |
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